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The nasty old woman sends an army which kills the three lovers and their helpers. The father of the two princesses has her executed and, in their common grief, the two states are reconciled. The Dutch opened an embassy in , the English in and the French in See was nine when his father came back from court one night with two verses King Narrai had been unable to turn into a quatrain.
What is it that tarnished your cheek, my beloved? Did some mosquito, fly, gnat or midge furtively bite you? When Phra Ho-rarthibordee woke up the next morning, he found the stanza completed. Respecting rhythm, rhyme and tone, his son had added: Who could possibly brag of touching your fair skin?
Who would dare bruise the flesh I cherish? See proved so gifted that Narrai bestowed on him the patronymic of Seeprart or Glorious Sage. The boy grew into a gallant young man.
One day, the king asked his courtiers to make poems in praise of the floats the ladies of the court had made for a water ceremony. Seeprart had his eyes on a lady-in-waiting who was somewhat older than himself, and this led to the following exchange: How deftly you pleated nipa palm Into this fine floating junk!
Shall we sail and bail in it heart to heart? Foolish rabbit prancing at the moon Forgetful of his lowly lot Peacock spreading his tail for the clouds Oblivious of the beast in him Ah ha!
There, Seeprart became the star of poetic contests. It took strokes, history records. The lady was similarly dispatched. The first Thai primer, Jindarmanee, was culled from a Pali manual. Soon, even young princesses learned to read and write. The first dramas were performed at court, mixing monarchs, myths and magic, with enough coarse words and sexual innuendos to please the village crowds.
Education became so important that families of note set up and sponsored their own temples to ensure the schooling of their offspring.
In , Ayutthaya burned — and so did most of its palm-leaf manuscripts. After an interlude of fifteen years in Thonburee [Thonburi], the first of the Rama kings, founder of the Jakkree [Chakri] dynasty, set about building Bangkok and the kingdom we know now. The year was , and Siam was about to languidly enter the modern age. There were more tussles with the Burmese during the first reign, three decades later some unpleasantness with the French over Cambodia and Laos and, later still, with the English over the Malay states, but by and large the central administration was left to get on with the work of building a modern state.
At first, nothing much changed: same administrative system as in Ayutthaya; same dual social structure of rulers and ruled. For most people, life still centred on the house and the temple. There was little formal education outside the palace. Yet, a legal system was cobbled together in By the third reign , however, things began to move. The state-controlled foreign trade — with China, India, Java, Portugal, England, etc — grew rapidly, fuelling an economic boom, until the Sino-British Opium War undermined export income.
The tax system was overhauled and state coffers were full. The Thai consider the last ten reincarnations as the most important, especially the last one, whose story was translated collectively from Pali to Thai in as the Maha-chart Khamluang or Official version of the great birth. In it, the future Buddha is born as Prince Weitsandorn, who loses his throne after he gives away his magic white elephant. Later, he is willing to part from his two children and wife, whereupon the god Indra returns him to the throne.
The edifying chardok tales were known to the Thai of Sukho-thai; they have generated many other popular and classic works and are still told and retold to Thai children today. While the first Thai princes were sent abroad to learn English, the first English and American missionaries entered Siam, Bibles and medicine in hand. This early Bangkok period saw feverish efforts to write anew the lost works of the past, by relying on vivid oral traditions.
Rama II, Rama III and Sunthorn Phoo contributed to Khun Chang Khun Phaen, generally held to be the classic of classics, for the perfection of its style, its true-to-life characters and its depiction of not just the palace crowd but ordinary folk and their foibles, frolics and festivities.
Based on a local tale inspired by a real story that took place at the end of the 15th century, it tells of the love triangle between noble Phaen, wealthy Chang and the woman Phim-Wanthong, the only daughter of a well-to-do merchant, who has become, quite unjustly, the epitome of the wanton wife. The most complete version of the Rarmakian was written under Rama I.
It was rewritten and shortened under Rama II to accompany court dance performances. Though versions of some episodes were penned later, notably under Rama IV, the Rama II version is considered to be the most refined.
Sunthorn Phoo was born four years after Bangkok, and his seventy years spanned four reigns, with greatly changing fortunes.
His parents divorced before he came to life. His father, some commoner hailing probably from Ayutthaya, married and settled down in Rayong Province. There Sunthorn Phoo was born, and introduced to the prince as a child.
He was educated at the Seesudarrarm monastery nearby. The next we hear of him, he is in his teens and in jail, either for the crime of being smitten with a lady-inwaiting of the prince or for riotous behavior while under the influence of alcohol. It was behind bars, in any case, that he started his masterpiece, Phra Aphaimanee, which would be twenty years in the making. At the death of the prince, he was freed, and soon Rama II made him his amanuensis and official court poet, with the title of Khun Sunthorn Wo-harn something like Baron Gift of the Gab.
He had three wives in quick succession, who each gave him a son. When his protector died, Sunthorn Phoo, then 38, lost royal favor and became a monk, visiting various royal temples, writing a great deal, until he disrobed and fell on even harder times and had to beg for little mercies from noble admirers. In the course of his long life, besides his contribution to such collective works as Khun Chang Khun Phaen, he wrote no fewer than nine nirart or elegiac travel poems, five very long and very tall tales, four lengthy lullabies, three sets of precepts and maxims all Thai know, two lyrical dramas and a play.
Phra Aphaimanee This wondrous flight of fancy defies summarizing. It tells of two young brothers, prince Aphaimanee and Prince Seesuwan, who were sent out in search of broad knowledge and military skills as was the custom for young sires in those days.
When they return, one an expert magic pipe-player, the other a champion fighter with wooden sticks, their father chases them away. A series of adventures follow, involving, among sundry mythical creatures, a sea ogress who gives Aphaimanee a son; a family of mermaids gobbled up by the ogress except for one daughter, who bears Aphaimanee a son as well; a sweet eastern princess in distress who, after many twists and turns piracy, flight, nunhood , bears him twin daughters; and a gorgeous but nasty Lanka princess, who gives birth to yet another son, who turns into an awful brat.
When a hermit puts an end to all quarrels, the tired heroes become monks at long last. This extraordinary tale is a shimmering ode to love, women, knowledge and modern science. Aphaimanee learns English. The poem bristles with futuristic weaponry, airplanes and even a yellow?
The princesses handle weapons, run armies and countries, and show little of the modesty expected of ladies of the time. Experts say that Sunthorn Phoo, besides putting much of himself and the women of his life in this work, borrowed freely from Indian and Chinese tales and from local lore, but they agree that never had a work of fiction been so highly personal and inventive. Immensely popular from the start, Phra Aphaimanee is an essential component of Thai culture even today, and is repeated in proverbs, sayings and cartoons.
When Phaen finally returns with a beautiful prisoner in tow, his ex-wife refuses to see him. He goes back and convinces her to flee with him into the jungle. Chang tries all the tricks he knows to get her back and finally goes to the king and accuses Phaen of high treason. Long battles ensue, in which Phaen maintains the upper hand, but when Phim becomes pregnant he decides to surrender.
He is jailed, and Chang resumes life with Wanthong, who delivers a boy. Father and son go to war against Chiangmai again and win a decisive battle. Unable to decide whose wife Phim-Wanthong is, the king enjoins her to choose.
Chinese immigration had started under Tarksin, ruler of Thonburee and himself a Sino-Thai. To this day, Sarm Kok has inspired an amazing amount of exegesis and paraphrastic versions as well as the translation of a huge body of Chinese chronicles and romances. Throughout the period, literary works became increasingly entertaining, with nirart, love epistles and the writing of the countless tales and legends of the popular Buddhist tradition.
Surrounded by mythological creatures, the characters nonetheless had flesh and blood, and their passions evolved with the plot. Greater sophistication was leading to a noticeable diversification of styles. The period saw many new poets, nobles and commoners, male and female, and under Rama III two satirical works appeared.
They were written by a woman, Khun Suwan, who was poking fun at some officials. All were indications of an unprecedented independence of thought. When radical reformist King Mongkut ascended the throne in , he opened up Siam to the West. As a result, many changes took place in Thai society. Administrative reform along western lines revolutionised daily life, right down to the way of behaving and dressing. Slavery was eventually abolished in , and everybody given high-sounding family names.
As England took over the Indian subcontinent, Burma and the Malay states, and France grabbed Indochina, the two colonial powers agreed to leave Siam as a cushion between their dominions, but not without kicking up much dust at her borders. Germany, Russia and Japan became new stars in the Thai cosmogony.
Foreign trade was no longer state controlled. Siam exported teak, tin and increasing amounts of rice. Banking and land transportation were born. Literacy increased, textbooks were ordered, and the body of reference texts in Thai continued to grow. The first foreign missionaries ushered in western values and methods. These publications as a rule did not last long, but they were breeding grounds for writers, sealing the unholy alliance between the fact-chasing press and modern fiction.
The belated introduction of printing was a decisive turning point. From then on, prose would recover the primacy it had lost four centuries earlier. Thai writers would finally come down to earth and discover realism. They also discovered another way of writing, concise, factual, efficient, yet with its own beauty. Non-fiction helped form generations of writers, and fiction short stories, plays and then novels rapidly relegated poetry to hasbeen status.
For a few decades longer, however, poetic works of note were still being composed. By the turn of the century, Siam adopted a copyright law, the Siam Society was founded in and the first public library was inaugurated. It only lasted until Dec The versified play tells the sad story of beautiful Lam-hap, who is promised by her parents to Hanao. Her brother, however, would like her to wed Somphla, a poor yet daring young man he admires; so, he arranges for her to go and pick flowers in the jungle, where Somphla will be waiting.
Somphla comes out of hiding and kills the snake. When she comes to, he proclaims his passion and she falls in love with him. As the time of her wedding approaches, Lam-hap and Somphla elope to live in a cave. Hanao searches for them high and low and finally he and his party find the cave. A fight ensues, in which Somphla is killed, whereupon Lam-hap kills herself. Seeing this, Hanao realizes the depth of their love and, out of grief and guilt, kills himself. Poets have been experimenting with free verse and loose forms, though the best among them tend to prefer the constraints of classic formats.
Jularlongkorn University started accepting female students in the s. These young men, directly exposed to western values, in time brought them back home, and, in the field of literature, introduced the short story, plays and the novel. Aristocrats, nobles and other dignitaries including the leaders of the Buddhist clergy borrowed freely from popular tradition — a mixture of animistic superstitions, tall tales and magnified local events which Hinduism then Buddhism peppered, salted and cheerfully churned to better edify the faithful.
In turn, popular literature fed on the palace output, essentially via the temples. The various Thai versions of the Ramayana throughout the centuries have no use for its heavy metaphysical speculations and only recount its anecdotes, which inspired many other Thai classics as well. Ditto for the more ancient Mahabharata. Actually, these Indian classics came second-hand to the Thais: the Mahabharata through the Khmers, the Ramayana from southern India through Java.
The aristocratic writers of the classic age were at the top of the authoritarian social order and their main beneficiaries. Steeped in Buddhist culture, they breathed Buddhist values, which were fine instruments for maintaining the social status quo. Elder brother of Kuekrit Prarmoat [Kukrit Pramoj]. See ppsq. Traditionally, literary beauty stems from the use of poetic words that are pleasant to hear and stir the imagination.
The various forms of poetry developed in the course of a few centuries are highly complex, with inner rhymes and set places for certain letters, and these formal constraints tend to favour verbal performance over significance. Classic poets focus on roop rot klin siang — flavour, smell, shape and sound, which leaves little room for thought. In practice, however, even the best of them tend to err on the alliterative side. Great stuff indeed. To most Thai, this is cream of poetry.
To Westerners, it is arty mumbo jumbo. Thai poets — like our Renaissance versifiers — do not describe landscapes: they shape them as they chime along. Hence the talent and success of Thai ad slogan mongers today? Primacy goes to sound, rather than meaning. And it is an enduring legacy: students from the earliest age must stumble through thousands of these tongue-twisters. An admirable outcome of this is that many can actually versify for fun when the mood strikes them.
Poets have been known to improvise collectively on television — my verse, your turn — and it is said that in the royal courts of yore, the meanest poets never spoke but in verse. The few examples of poetry translated in these pages show, however, how weak their substance can be once they are shorn of their sonorous garb, whose exceedingly baroque lavishness is alien to the rather sober genius of western languages.
There is even more perverse: verses that read left to right as well as from right to left. So, early on, the Thai got into the habit of pairing them up to make themselves clear, and it sounded good too: rhymed and rhythmic patterns characterise popular parlance and its countless proverbs.
From there it was a short step pairing up pairs into clusters, and yet another playing these syllabic conglomerates back and forth, for variety of sounds or shades of meaning. Shall I leave thee with Heaven or with Earth? I doubt I can trust the gods to behave Shall I commit thee to the wind then? I fear its caress would hurt thy fair skin.
Alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, imagery, similes, metaphors and poetic symbolism are not uncommon in creative Thai prose writing. Even the official language is laced with poetic frills and vestiges of eloquence and sophistication. These poetic habits unfortunately often mar Thai prose by creating redundancy and obscuring the structure where clarity is needed. Thus the natural power of prose is weakened. Besides the periodicals, which became increasingly plebeian, a favourite aristocratic medium was the stage, especially for operettas.
The short story in the s and the novel in the first quarter of the 20th century went through the same process of translation, adaptation and finally creation. By the end of the 19th century, the Thai short story had come into its own and was well received, even by ordinary people, thanks to the various periodicals. Perhaps the most influential of these was Wachirayarn Wiseit, a weekly magazine which managed to last a decade It was there that what may well have been the first experiment at novel writing by a Thai appeared in The first instalment of Sanuk Nuek described four young Buddhist monks discussing what they were going to do once they disrobed and left the Borworn Niweit monastery in Bangkok.
Three of them thought they would resume their careers in the civil service. The fourth was not sure, as he was attracted to the material and spiritual advantages of staying in the monkhood.
Imaginary conversations in fictitious surroundings were not exactly unheard of at the time, but having a well-known temple as a setting could only mean one thing: the story was for real, and reporting such irreverent chatter by monks was deemed an insult to the institution. The Patriarch, in a typical charade, wrote to the king, not to protest but to ask for royal pardon on behalf of the author for making the king angry at having upset his uncle, i.
Jularlongkorn wrote back explaining that this bit of West-inspired fiction was not meant to be taken seriously and no offence was or should be taken — and he berated his brother. There was no second instalment. This bout of censorship on the very first attempt at Thai novel writing is all the more unfortunate as everyone agrees Rama V, though an absolutist monarch, was a staunch supporter of freedom of expression in art and literature.
If anything, the episode showed that the reading public was not ready for modern fiction. It would take another generation, the continuous translation of western works and the progress of Thai fiction writing to change parochial perceptions. During the first three years of the 20th century, a main conduit of Victorian English culture was a review candidly entitled Lak Witthaya Stealing knowledge , set up by England-educated aristocrats to publish western literature in translation or adaptation.
Its title? Its author? Marie Corelli. Marie who? Ms Corelli was allegedly the favourite author of Gladstone and Queen Victoria and was read in colonial India and even farther-flung outposts of the British empire. Never significant and long forgotten at home, she is still alive and selling in Thailand, where all of her dozen novels have been piously translated! If such a work did exist, it would technically qualify as the first Thai novel or at least protonovel.
In any case, the great success of The vendetta encouraged Thai translators to carry on in the same vein. For all their classic poetic studies, these foreign-educated sons of the elite, princes, nobles or smart commoners, had no particular knowledge of western literature and were drawn to exciting bestsellers of the time, which they hoped would win over an ignorant home audience always eager to be entertained.
Unsurprisingly, these talent scouts unerringly went for second-best. It is a minor miracle indeed that she eventually managed to write a bit like Henry James. It turns out that the novel was first published in — and is fairly dreary to read. In the s, another training ground opened for them when western movies came to Bangkok and spread in the provinces like wild fire. As the films were silent, clever publishers started movie magazines that explained the action to the viewers, and later also published film synopses, and even plays.
The foreign-educated officials and English-proficient students who worked on these magazines and scripts thus had a splendid opportunity to learn some of the tricks of the art of fiction — of a type strictly geared, again, to popular entertainment. Meanwhile, Thai writers were trying their hands at the new medium. In the early s, by then a king, he wrote what is considered to be a rare example of a protonovel.
Literary experts find it nearly impossible to determine whether the novels published in Thai during the first two decades of the 20th century were genuine creations, mere transpositions of foreign novels, or, more perversely, Thai stories transplanted in some corner of Europe or China to cash in on the vogue of western novels and Chinese epics. Nevertheless, it is accepted that Thai novels with Thai characters in Thai settings finally surfaced in the early s.
By then, the first professional writers had been born, usually journalists-essayists who also wrote fiction, but theirs was a hardy lot. When, in their fictional world of the mids, Wisoot told Maria that there were very few Thai novels in his country, he was indeed well informed.
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